UNIT – I(UGC NT)
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INTRODUCTION & HISTORY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION
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Meaning of Physical Education
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Definitions
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Evolution of Physical Education
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How Physical Education Started
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Aim and Objectives of Physical Education
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CBSE Requirement
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Objectives According to:
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Walter
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Sherman
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Sargent
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Nash
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Laslie
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Clarke
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Williams
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Bucher
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Bloom and Barrow
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AAHPER and Society of State Director of Health and Physical Education Joint Committee
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AAHPER
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AAHPERD
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Significance of Physical Education Programs in Schools
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ONGOING CAREER OPTIONS IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION
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Difference between UGC & NCTE
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Courses Recognized by NCTE
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Courses in a Sequence
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Adapted Physical Education
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BODY TYPES
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Body Type Discoveries in a Sequence
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Hippocrates - The Humoral Theory
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Galen - Four Temperament Theory
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Kretschmer - Constitutional Typology
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Sheldon - Constitutional Psychology
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Heath-Carter Formula
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Ponderal Index/Corpulence Index
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Somatotype Categories
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GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
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Difference Between Growth and Development
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Factors Affecting Growth and Development
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Various Important Terminologies
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Stages of Growth and Development
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Prenatal Development
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Germinal Stage
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Embryonic Stage
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Fetal Stage
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Infancy
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Toddler
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Early Childhood
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Later Childhood
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Adolescence and Puberty
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Adulthood
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Theories of Growth and Development
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Erik Erikson
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Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
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Lawrence Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development
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Sigmund Freud's Psychosexual Theory
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Different Types of Ages
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Chronological Age
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Physiological/Biological Age
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Mental Age
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Anatomical Age
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WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY?
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Branches of Philosophy
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Logic
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Epistemology
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Metaphysics
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Axiology
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PHILOSOPHIES OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION
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Naturalism
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Idealism
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Realism
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Pragmatism
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Humanism
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Existentialism
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An Eclectic Approach
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Philosophies of Education
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Progressivism
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Essentialism
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PLAY THEORIES
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History of Play
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Theories:
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Surplus Energy Theory
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Recreation Theory
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Instinct Theory
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Recapitulation Theory
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Anticipatory Theory
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Theory of Instinct Practice
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Theory of Cathartic
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Theory of Psycho-analytic
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Social Contract Theory
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Self-Expression Theory
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Play is a Life Theory
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Calloi’s Theory
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Growth Theories
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Cognitive Theory
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Re-creative Theory
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PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN ANCIENT TIMES
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Greece
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Homeric Period
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Sparta
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Athens
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Rome
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Germany
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Sweden
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Denmar
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Great Britain
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The United States of America
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China
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India
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Pre-Independent
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Post-Independence
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Tara Chand Committee
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Central Advisory Board of Physical Education and Recreation (CABPER)
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Ad-hoc Enquiry Committee on Games and Sports
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National Institute of Sports
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National Cadet Corps
●
Auxiliary Cadet Corps
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National Discipline Scheme/National Fitness Corps
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Kunzru Committee
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School Health Committee
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Kothari Education Commission
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Lakshmibai National Institute of Physical Education
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Hanuman Vyam Prasarak Mandal
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YMCA
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Christian College Lucknow
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National Sports University
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Punjab Sports University
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Sri Sri Aniruddhadeva Sports University
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Various Organizations Established in India
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University Grant Commission
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NAAC
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NCTE
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AIU
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MoE
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SAI
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National Sports Talent Contest Scheme (NSTC)
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Army Boys Sports Company (ABSC)
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SAI Training Centers (STC)
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Special Area Games (SAG)
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Extension Centres of STCs/SAGs
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National Centres of Excellence (NCoEs)
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Come and Play Scheme
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NSNIS
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Ministry of Youth and Affairs
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All India Council of Sports (AICS)
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Target Olympic Podium Scheme
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Indian Sports Awards
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Major Dhyan Chand Khel Ratna Awards
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Arjuna Award
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Dhyan Chand Award
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Dronacharya Award
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MAKA Trophy
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Rashtriya Khel Protsahan Puraskar
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Tenzing Norgay National Adventure Award
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Khelo India and Fit India Programme
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Khelo India Programme
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Key Features
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Types of Khelo India Programs
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Khelo India Youth Games
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Khelo India Winter Games
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Khelo India University Games
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Fit India Programme
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MEANING OF RECREATION
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WHY WE NEED RECREATION
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ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF RECREATION
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Leisure Time
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Enjoyable
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Satisfaction
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Voluntary Participation
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Socially Acceptable
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All-Round Development
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Objectives
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TYPES OF RECREATION
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Indoor Recreation
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Outdoor Recreation
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Active Recreation
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Passive Recreation
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RECREATION AGENCIES
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Governmental Agencies
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Voluntary Agencies
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Private Agencies
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Commercial Agencies
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SOCIALIZATION
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Society
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Culture
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Social Institutions
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Significance of Social Institutions
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SPORTS AS A TOOL FOR SOCIAL INTEGRATION
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Coordination and Cooperation
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Differences Between Coordination and Cooperation
Meaning of Physical Education
Physical Education uses physical activity or movement to bring about positive changes in the physical, mental, and emotional makeup of an individual. It is a broad field of education which deals with the relationship between physical well-being and movement and other domains of education. Physical education uses an individual's own body to develop and maintain the body, develop motor skills and physical abilities, make a habit of living a healthy lifestyle, and develop the ability to control emotions for a fuller living
Definitions
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"Physical Education is the sum of those experiences which come to the individual through movement." -Delbert Oberteuffer
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"Physical Education is an integral part of the total educational process. It is a field of endeavour that has as its aim the improvement of human performance through the medium of physical activities that have been selected with a view to realizing this outcome." - Charles A. Bucher
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"Physical Education is the sum of man’s physical activities selected as to kind, and conducted as to outcomes." -Jesse Feiring Williams
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"Physical Education is that phase of the whole field of education that deals with the big muscle activities and their related responses." -Jay B. Nash
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"Jackson R. Sharman points out that physical education is that part of education which takes place through activities, which involves the motor mechanism of the human body which results in an individual’s formulating behaviour patterns."
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"Central Advisory Board of physical Education and Recreation defines Physical education as an education through physical activities for the development of the total personality of the child to its fullness and perfection in body, mind and spirit."
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"According to H.C.Buck – Physical Education is a part of the general education programme, which is considered with growth, development and education through the medium of big muscle activities."
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"Oberteuffer’s View, “Physical Education is the sum of those experiences which come to the individual through movement."
Evolution of Physical Education
Physical Education evolved from gymnastics (during 1800s) to hygiene to physical culture to physical training and now is known as Physical Education.
Physical education was first stamped into the school system in 1820 when gymnastics, hygiene, and care of the human body found its introduction into the curriculum. In 1823, the Round Hill School in Northampton, Massachusetts was the first school in the nation to make it an integral part of their educational program. Physical Education is now called movement education because it focuses on achieving overall fitness and well-being through body movement.
Aim and Objectives of Physical Education
Physical Education is “education through movement”. It aims to maximize our physical ability, leading us to be healthy, knowledgeable, skillful, creative, productive and influential in all walks of life.
The aim of Physical Education is the optimal and wholesome development of the individual for complete living, as well as optimum performance in sports competitions
CBSE Requirement
From April 2019, CBSE has made Health and Physical Education periods compulsory for Classes 1st to 8th on an everyday basis
Objectives of Physical Education According to:
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Buck Walter
1.
Health
2.
Worthy use of Leisure time
3.
Ethical character
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J. R. Sherman
1.
To provide opportunities for controlled participation
2.
To develop the organic system of the body
3.
To develop skills in activities and a favorable attitude towards play
4.
To develop desirable social attitudes and conduct
5.
To develop correct health habits
6.
To develop emotionally and intellectually
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Dudley A. Sargent (1880)
1.
Hygienic
2.
Educative
3.
Recreative
4.
Remedial objectives
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J. B. Nash (1948)
1.
Organic development
2.
Neuromuscular development
3.
Interpretive development
4.
Emotional development
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Laslie
1.
Organic aspect of development
2.
Neuromuscular aspect of development
3.
Emotional aspect of development
4.
Social aspect of development
5.
Intellectual aspect of development
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H. Clarke
1.
Physical Fitness
2.
Social Efficiency
3.
Culture
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J.F Williams - Physical education should aim to provide skilled leadership, adequate facilities and ample time for the individual and the groups to participate in activities that are physically wholesome, mentally stimulating and socially sound.
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Charles A Bucher
1.
Physical development
2.
Motor and movement development
3.
Cognitive and mental development
4.
Social development
5.
Effective development
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Bloom and Harold M Barrow - According to them, there are three main domains which are the objectives of Physical Education:
1.
Cognitive Domain -(knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation)
2.
Affective domain -(This is concerned with clarifying the doubts of the athletes. This helps them to develop proper and positive attitudes toward Physical Education (finding the faults).
3.
Psychomotor domain - (This concerns the development of motor skills and will result in the achievement of general motor ability and skills)
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1950- AAHPER and Society of State Director of Health and Physical Education Joint Committee
1.
To develop and maintain minimum efficiency
2.
To develop useful skills
3.
To conduct oneself in socially useful ways
4.
To enjoy wholesome recreation
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1965-AAHPER
1.
To help children learn to move skillfully and effectively
2.
To develop an understanding of voluntary movements
3.
To develop understanding and appreciation of scientific principles concerned with movement
4.
To extend understanding of socially approved patterns of personal behavior
5.
To develop various organ systems of the body so that they will respond in a healthful way to the increased demands placed upon them
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1971-AAHPERD's Physical Education Goals and Objectives
1.
Physical Education contributes to academic achievement
2.
Physical Education is health insurance
3.
Physical Education provides skills and experiences that last a lifetime
4.
Physical Education develops a positive self-image and the ability to compete and cooperate with others
Significance of Physical Education Programs in Schools
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Develops physical skills and fitness.
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Improves health and well-being.
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Enhances cognitive function.
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Promotes social and emotional development.
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Instills discipline and sportsmanship.
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Builds leadership qualities.
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Encourages teamwork and cooperation.
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Provides a platform for healthy competition.
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Develops a sense of fair play and respect for rules.
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Creates awareness about the importance of physical activity.
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Helps in stress management and emotional regulation.
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Develops motor skills and coordination.
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Promotes a healthy lifestyle.
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Prepares students for lifelong participation in physical activities.
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Contributes to overall personality development.
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Develops self-confidence and self-esteem
ONGOING CAREER OPTIONS IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION
Difference between UGC & NCTE
U.G.C stands for University Grants Commission which provides recognition for universities in India while N.C.T.E stands for National Council for Teacher Education which is to formally oversee standards, procedures and processes in the Indian education system
Courses Recognized by NCTE
The National Council of Teacher Education (NCTE) has recognized the courses which prepare teachers of Physical Education for school system in India. NCTE recognizes only three courses for Physical Education Teachers:
1.
Diploma in Physical Education (D.P.Ed.): This course prepares Physical Education Teachers for the elementary stage of school education i.e. for Classes I to VIII
2.
Bachelor of Physical Education (B.P.Ed): This course is designed for preparing teachers of Physical Education for teaching theory papers in Classes VI to X and conducting Physical Education and Sports Activities for Classes XI-XII
3.
Master of Physical Education (M.P.Ed.): It is meant for preparing Physical Education Teachers for Senior Secondary classes (i.e. XI-XII) as well as Assistant Professors/ Directors/ Sports Officers in Colleges/Universities and Teacher Educators in Colleges of Physical Education and University Departments of Physical Education
Courses in a Sequence
1.
CPEd AND DPEd -1931 started in YMCA
2.
BPE – 1957 (started in LNIPE)
3.
BPEd started from LNIPE
4.
MPEd – 1962-63 (started from LNIPE)
5.
Ph.D
6.
M.Phil
7.
BPES and MPES in 2014
NOTE – M.Phil got discontinued according to NATIONAL EDUCATION POLICY 2020 which was approved by UNION CABINET. Also, the first Physical Education Institute is YMCA (by H.C BUCK) in 1920 & it’s academic session started from 1931 as C.P.Ed, D.P.Ed. Then from LNIPE BPE started in the year 1957 and in 1962-63 M.P.Ed started
Adapted Physical Education
Adapted physical education is the art and science of developing, implementing, and monitoring a carefully designed physical education instructional program for a learner with a disability, based on a comprehensive assessment, to give the learner the skills necessary for a lifetime of rich leisure, recreation, and sport experiences to enhance physical fitness and wellness. Adapted physical education generally refers to school-based programs for students ages 3–21yrs
BODY TYPES
Body Type Discoveries in a Sequence
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Hippocrates (c. 460 – c. 370 BC) - The Humoral theory
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Galen (AD 129 – 200) - Four temperament theory
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Ernst Kretschmer (1921) - Constitutional Typology
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William H. Sheldon(1940) - Constitutional Psychology
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HEATH-CARTER FORMULA (1967)
I. By Hippocrates
Theory of Humour - Greek physician Hippocrates (c. 460
– c. 370 BC)
The humoral theory, or humoralism, was a system of medicine detailing the makeup and workings of the human body. He believed that certain human moods, emotions, and behaviors were caused by an excess or lack of body fluids (called "humours"), which he classified as blood, yellow bile, black bile, and phlegm. The four personality types are: sanguine, choleric, melancholic and phlegmatic
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The sanguine personality type is characterized by blood and represents social usefulness.
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The choleric type is characterized by extroversion.
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The melancholic type is characterized by an analytical and detail-oriented presentation.
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The phlegmatic type is indicative of a relaxed and easygoing presentation
NOTE - Choleric (hot-tempered), sanguine (confident), melancholic (moody), and phlegmatic (slow to act)
Based on Hippocratic medicine, it was believed that the four humors were to be in balanced proportions with regard to amount and strength of each humor for a body to be healthy. The imbalance of humors, or dyscrasia, was thought to be the direct cause of all diseases. Health was associated with a balance of humors, or eucrasia. He said that:
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The people who have red blood are friendly, they joke and laugh around about their bodies and for their appearance they are rose tinted, slightly red, and have pretty skin
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The people who have yellow bile are bitter, short tempered, daring. They appear greenish and have yellow skin
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The people who are composed of black bile are lazy, fearful, and sickly. They have black hair and black eyes
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Those who have phlegm are low spirited, forgetful, and have white hair
II. By Galen (AD 129 – 200)
Galen (Greek physician, AD 129 – 216) revered Hippocrates and developed many of his teachings, ultimately attempting to devise a comprehensive typology of temperament. According to him - “Sharpness and intelligence are caused by yellow bile in the soul, perseverance and consistency by the melancholic humour, and simplicity and naivety by blood. But the nature of phlegm has no effect on the character of the soul”. He further said that blood is a mixture of four elements: water, air, fire, earth
The Four Temperaments:
Sanguine Indicates the personality of an individual with the temperament of blood (which was believed to be produced in the liver), the season of spring (wet and hot), and the element of air. A person who is sanguine is generally optimistic, cheerful, even-tempered, confident, rational, popular, and fun-loving. He or she can be daydreamy to the point of not accomplishing anything and impulsive, acting on whims in an unpredictable fashion. Sanguines usually have a lot of energy but have a problem finding a way to direct the energy. This also describes the manic phase of bipolar disorder
Choleric corresponds to the fluid of yellow bile (yellowy-green bile is present in the gallbladder), the season of summer (dry and hot), and the element of fire. A person who is choleric is a doer and a leader. They have a lot of ambition, energy and drive, and try to instil it in others but can dominate people of other temperaments, especially phlegmatic types. Many great charismatic, military and political figures were cholerics. On the negative side, they are easily angered or bad tempered. In folk medicine, a baby referred to as “colic” is one who cries frequently and seems to be constantly angry. This is an adaptation of “choleric,” although no-one now would attribute the condition to bile. Similarly, a person described as “bilious” is meanspirited, suspicious, and angry. This, again, is an adaptation of the old humour theory “choleric.” The disease Cholera gained its name from choler (bile)
Melancholic is the temperament associated with black bile (which was believed to be produced in the spleen), the season of autumn (dry and cold), and the element of earth. The melancholic personality is characterized by a person who is thoughtful, reserved, anxious, unhappy, and quiet. Melancholics can be highly creative in activities such as poetry and art—they are both introspective and perfectionistic. However, they are also prone to being suspicious and lacking trust in others. If they do not develop appropriate coping strategies, they can be prone to depression.
Phlegmatic is associated with phlegm (which was believed to be produced in the brain and lungs), the season of winter (wet and cold), and the element of water. A phlegmatic person is relaxed, peaceful, quiet, and easy-going. They are sympathetic and care about others, yet try to hide their emotions. Phlegmatics are not easily upset or angered, and they avoid conflict (however, once angered, they can hold a grudge). They are thought to be consistent, relaxed, calm, rational, curious, and observant, qualities that make them good administrators and diplomats
III. Body Types by Kretschmer
Ernst Kretschmer was a German psychiatrist who researched the human constitution and established a typology.
Constitutional Typology - Personality type refers to the psychological classification of different types of individuals
In his book Physique and Character, first published in 1921, his classification system was based on four main body types (1921)
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a) asthenic (thin, small, weak)
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b) athletic (muscular, large–boned)
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c) pyknic (stocky, fat)
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d) dysplastic (unproportionate body)
IV. Body Types by Sheldon
Somatotype is a widely discredited taxonomy developed in the 1940s by American psychologist William Herbert Sheldon to categorize the human physique according to the relative contribution of three fundamental elements which he termed 'somatotypes', classified by him as 'ectomorphic', 'mesomorphic' and 'endomorphic'
In his 1954 book, Atlas of Men, Sheldon categorized all possible body types according to a scale ranging from 1 to 7 for each of the three 'somatotypes', where the pure 'endomorph' is 7–1–1, the pure 'mesomorph' 1–7–1 and the pure 'ectomorph' scores 1–1–7. In a book atlas of man, he claimed that the world population could be classified into 343 possible body types
The Three Types
Sheldon's "somatotypes" and their associated physical and psychological traits were characterized as follows:
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Ectomorphic: characterized by long and thin muscles/limbs and low fat storage; usually referred to as slim.
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Mesomorphic: characterized by large bones, solid torso, low fat levels, wide shoulders with a narrow waist; usually referred to as muscular.
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Endomorphic: characterized by increased fat storage, a wide waist and a large bone structure, usually referred to as fat.
V. Heath-Carter Formula
It is the most commonly used method of somatotyping today formulated by J.E. Lindsay Carter and Barbara Honeyman Heath. Heath and Carter (1967)
Health – carter somatotype system(1967) is a refinement on Sheldon technique. He introduces 9-10 point scale instead of 7
According to him, Endomorphy refers to the relative fatness, mesomorphy is the relative musculo-skeletal robustness, and ectomorphy is the relative linearity or slenderness of a physique (Carter & Heath, 1990)
The technique of somatotyping is used to appraise body shape and composition. The somatotype is defined as the quantification of the present shape and composition of the human body. It is expressed in a three-number rating representing endomorphy, mesomorphy and ectomorphy components respectively, always in the same order
Ponderal Index/Corpulence Index
NOTE – If you are looking for a more accurate measure than Body Mass Index, check out this ponderal index calculator. The ponderal index, also known as a corpulence index or Rohrer's index, can help you determine if you are overweight, underweight, or just right, as the BMI value does. However, PI has higher sensitivity and specificity, so if you are a tall person, your BMI may show that you are obese, but it's not necessarily true
The Corpulence Index (CI) (also Ponderal Index (PI) or Rohrer's Index) is a measure of corpulence, or of leanness in other variants, of a person calculated as a relationship between mass and height. It was first proposed in 1921 as the "Corpulence measure" by Swiss physician Fritz Rohrer and hence is also known as Rohrer's Index. It is similar to the body mass index, but the mass is normalized with the third power of body height rather than the second power. In 2015, Sultan Babar showed that CI does not need to be adjusted for height after adolescence.
There are three ways/techniques of obtaining the somatotype
1.
The anthropometric method, in which anthropometry is used to estimate the criterion somatotype.
2.
The photoscopic method, in which ratings are made from a standardized photograph.
3.
The anthropometric plus photoscopic method, which combines anthropometry and ratings from a photograph.
Equations for a decimal anthropometric somatotype:
They defined somatotype as the ‘present morphological conformation’ and expressed the primary components of physique that allow us to understand personal phenological characteristics and body composition three-dimensionally
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Endomorphy=-0.7182 + 0.1451 (X)-0.00068 (X2 ) + 0.0000014 (X3 ) Where X = (sum of triceps, sub scapular and supraspinale skinfold thicknesses) multiplied by (170.18/height in cm). This is called height -corrected endomorphy and is the most preferred method for calculating endomorphy
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Mesomorphy= [(0.858 x humerus breadth) + (0.601 x femur breadth) + (0.188 x corrected armgirth) + (0.161 x corrected calf girth)]– (height x 0.131)+ 4.50.
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Corrected arm girth= Arm girth – triceps skinfold thickness Corrected calf girth= Calf girth – calf medial skinfold thickness
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Three different equations are used to calculate Ectomorphy according to the height- weight ratio Ectomorphy= 0.732 x HWR-28.58
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Where, HWR= Height in cm divided by cube root of weight in kg. If HWR is equal to or less than 40.75 but greater than 38.5
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Ectomorphy= 0.463x HWR-17.63
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If HWR is equal to or less than 38.25 Then, Ectomorphy= 0.1
Somatotype Categories
Somatotype categories are labeled according to Carter and Heath (1990)
1.
Central: no component differs by more than one unit from the other two
2.
Balanced endomorph: endomorphy is dominant and mesomorphy and ectomorphy are equal (or do not differ by more than one-half unit)
3.
Mesomorphic endomorph: endomorphy is dominant and mesomorphy is greater than ectomorphy
4.
Mesomorph-endomorph: endomorphy and mesomorphy are equal (or do not differ by more than one-half unit), and ectomorphy is smaller
5.
Endomorphic mesomorph: mesomorphy is dominant and endomorphy is greater than ectomorphy
6.
Balanced mesomorph: mesomorphy is dominant and endomorphy and ectomorphy are equal (or do not differ by more than one-half unit)
7.
Ectomorphic mesomorph: mesomorphy is dominant and ectomorphy is greater than mesomorphy
8.
Mesomorph-ectomorph: mesomorphy and ectomorphy are equal (or do not differ by more than one-half unit), and endomorphy is smaller
9.
Endomorphic ectomorph: ectomorphy is dominant and endomorphy is greater than mesomorphy
10.
Balanced ectomorph: ectomorphy is dominant and endomorphy and mesomorphy are equal (or do not differ by more than one-half unit)
11.
Mesomorphic ectomorph: ectomorphy is dominant and mesomorphy is greater than endomorphy
12.
Endomorph-ectomorph: endomorphy and ectomorphy are equal (or do not differ by more than one-half unit), and mesomorphy is lower
13.
Ectomorphic endomorph: endomorphy is dominant and ectomorphy is greater than mesomorphy
The 13 categories can be simplified into four larger categories:
1.
Central: no component differs by more than one unit from the other two.
2.
Endomorph: endomorphy is dominant, mesomorphy and ectomorphy are more than one - half unit lower.
3.
Mesomorph: mesomorphy is dominant; endomorphy and ectomorphy are more than one - half unit lower.
4.
Ectomorph: ectomorphy is dominant, endomorphy and mesomorphy are more than one-half unit lower.
NOTE - Temperamental Traits –
1.
ECTOMORPH – Cerebrotonia
2.
ENDOMORPH – Viscerotonia
3.
MESOMORPH - Somatotonia
NOTE – Recent studies in sports Anthropometry have referred to another body build called OMOMORPH – A person with Triangle torso. He may be purely an athletic type but the picture about them is still hazy
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
Difference Between Growth and Development
1.
Growth is a change in the physical aspects of the organism. Development is overall changes and progressive changes of the organism
2.
Growth is cellular but development is organizational
3.
Growth stops at maturity. Development continues till death
4.
Growth is quantitative. Development is qualitative
5.
Growth is a part of development. Development is a wider and comprehensive term
6.
Growth is the result of cell division. Development is the result of experience, learning and maturation
7.
Growth refers to an increase in size, height, weight, length, etc. Development refers to maturity
8.
Growth is visible and can be observed externally. Development is not visible as it is internal
9.
Growth can be measured accurately but development is a subjective interpretation of one’s change
10.
Growth takes place at a certain age, development is an ever-going process.
Factors Affecting Growth and Development
1.
Genetic factors
2.
Environmental factors
3.
Nutritional factors
4.
Specific programs in Physical Education
Various Important Terminologies (Assignment)
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MATURATION –
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LEARNING –
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COGNITION –
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AFFECTION
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PSYCHOMOTOR –
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PUBERTY
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LOGICAL THINKING
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ABSTRACT THINKING
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CONCRETE THINKING
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MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
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SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
(THERE ARE MANY IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGIES, ADD MORE BY ON YOUR OWN)
Stages of Growth & Development
These break the life span into nine stages as follows:
1.
Prenatal Development (Zygote, embryo, foetus)
2.
Postnatal (parturate and neonate)
3.
Infancy and Toddlerhood
4.
Early Childhood
5.
Later Childhood
6.
Adolescence
7.
Adulthood
I. PRENATAL STAGE
There are three stages of prenatal development: germinal, embryonic, and fetal
1) Germinal Stage(1-2 Weeks)
The germinal stage of development is the first and shortest of the stages of the human lifespan. The germinal stage lasts a total of eight to nine days. It begins in a Fallopian tube when an ovum is fertilized by a sperm to form a zygote
As the cells divide, they become more specialized, forming different organs and body parts. Cell division continues at a rapid rate during the approximately week-long journey from the fallopian tube to the uterus wall. The cells develop into what is known as a blastocyst. The blastocyst is made up of three layers, each of which develops into different structures in the body
1.
Ectoderm: Skin and nervous system
2.
Endoderm: Digestive and respiratory systems
3.
Mesoderm: Muscle and skeletal systems
In the germinal stage, the mass of cells has yet to attach itself to the lining of the mother’s uterus. Once it does, the next stage begins
2) Embryonic Stage (3-8 Weeks)
The beginning of the third week after conception marks the start of the embryonic period, a time when the mass of cells becomes distinct as a human. The embryonic stage plays an important role in the development of the brain. Approximately four weeks after conception, the neural tube forms along the back of the embryo, developing into the spinal cord and brain
Around the fourth week, the head begins to form, quickly followed by the eyes, nose, ears, and mouth. The blood vessel that will become the heart starts to pulse. During the fifth week, buds that will form the arms and legs appear
By the eighth week of development, the embryo has all of the basic organs and parts except those of the sex organs. At this point, the embryo weighs just one gram and is about one inch in length
By the end of the embryonic period, the basic structures of the brain and central nervous system have been established. At this point, the basic structure of the peripheral nervous system is also defined
3) Fetal Stage (9-40 Weeks)
When the organism is about nine weeks old, the embryo is called a fetus. At this stage, the fetus is about the size of a kidney bean and begins to take on the recognizable form of a human being as the “tail” begins to disappear
Between the ninth and twelfth week of gestation (at the earliest), reflexes begin to emerge. The fetus begins to make reflexive motions with its arms and legs. During the period from seven months until birth, the fetus continues to develop, put on weight, and prepare for life outside the womb. The lungs begin to expand and contract, preparing the muscles for breathing
II. POSTNATAL STAGE (Birth to 5 or 6 Years)
Growth Stages 1: Infancy and Early Childhood helps students become better aware of all of the natural physical stages of growth children experience in the first five years of life
In Growth Stages 2: Middle Childhood and Early Adolescence, students focus on the kinds of physical changes that children their age range begin to undergo during puberty
III. INFANCY
The average newborn weighs approximately 7.5 pounds (9-20 inches long). Infancy refers to the first two years of life after birth (infancy birth to 2 years old), and an infant is defined as a human being between birth and the first birthday
Teeth development – Teeth start appearing in the month of 6th or 8th. By the 9th month, the average baby has 3 teeth. Lower teeth appear earlier than upper ones.
In infancy, toddlerhood, and early childhood, the body’s physical development is rapid
IV. TODDLER (Also considered a part of Infancy)
A toddler is a child approximately 12 to 36 months old, though definitions vary. The toddler years are a time of great cognitive, emotional and social development. The word is derived from "to toddle", which means to walk unsteadily, like a child of this age
Cognitive development – Development of the brain mainly consists of the cerebrum and cerebellum
V. EARLY CHILDHOOD
During this period there is neither a growth spurt nor a total full-stop. This is a period of usually even growth, a bit slower than infancy, around three inches per year. Weight should be seven times than what the child had at the time of birth. Weight is approx 25 kg for boys and 24 kg for girls. Permanent teeth appear when at the age of 6 years. Language ability develops very rapidly. This is the time of most discipline and obedience. Perception and coordination become more accurate
VI. LATER CHILDHOOD
Now the child is approx. 46 inches in height, and height starts re-accelerating now. Limbs develop more than the body. As the child grows more accurate, coordination, more efficient, more logical, etc.
Key Points
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This stage is the best time for moral development
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Girls get maturity faster than boys
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This is the stage where socialization starts
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Child grows at a constant rate
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Permanent teeth start appearing at 6 years old
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Skill learning and language growth is most rapid in this phase
VII. ADOLESCENCE AND PUBERTY
Adolescence is the period of transition between childhood and adulthood (13-14 to 18-19 years old). It is generally considered to start with puberty, during which sexual maturation occurs and adolescents go through a spurt in growth. In many children, however, puberty actually begins during the stage called pre-adolescence, which covers the ages of 11 to 12 years. Adolescence is a period of rapid physical, cognitive, social and emotional changes. Adulthood, the period in the human lifespan in which full physical and intellectual maturity have been attained, is a stage of effective cognitive functioning. This is the time of gaining expertise, independence, and confidence. Adulthood is commonly thought of as beginning at age 20 or 21 years. Middle age, commencing at about 40 years, is followed by old age at about 60 years This period witnesses the completion of the process of SOCIALIZATION
VIII. ADULTHOOD
There is steady growth till the age of 20. After 20, growth is static. In early adulthood (20- 40 yrs.), there is a period of strength and vigor, skill, and endurance. Between 40 and 60 yrs., is middle adulthood where there is a decline in vigor and strength and chances of diseases are more. Old age is above 60 yrs.
Theories of Growth and Development
Many scientists and psychologists have studied various aspects of human development, including ego psychologist Erik Erikson.
The eight stages of human development are:
1.
Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy): This stage focuses on developing a sense of trust in the caregiver and the environment.
2.
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Toddlerhood): This stage involves developing a sense of independence and self-control.
3.
Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool): This stage is about exploring the environment and taking initiative in activities.
4.
Industry vs. Inferiority (School Age): This stage focuses on developing a sense of competence and mastery in skills.
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Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence): This stage involves developing a sense of self and personal identity.
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Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood): This stage is about forming meaningful relationships and experiencing intimacy.
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Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood): This stage focuses on contributing to society and leaving a legacy.
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Ego Integrity vs. Despair (Late Adulthood): This stage involves reflecting on life and finding meaning and acceptance.
Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Piaget’s theory is widely used in education programs to prepare teachers to instruct students in developmentally appropriate ways. The theory is based on four stages
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Sensorimotor: In the sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years old), children learn object permanence, which is the understanding that people and objects still exist even
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